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Nanotheranostics 2024; 8(4):506-520. doi:10.7150/ntno.96286 This issue Cite

Review

Therapeutic and Contrast Agents for Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy: A Narrative Review

Donni Kis Apriyanto^1,2, Mitrayana¹, Andreas Setiawan³, Rini Widyaningrum⁴

1. Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
2. Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Lampung, Bandar Lampung 35141, Indonesia.
3. Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana, Salatiga 50711, Indonesia.
4. Department of Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, Faculty of Dentistry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.

✉ Corresponding author: Rini Widyaningrum, Email: rinihapsaraac.id.

Abstract

Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid modality that combines high-contrast and spectroscopy-based optical imaging specificity with the high spatial resolution of ultrasonography. This review highlights the development and progress of photoacoustic imaging technology over the past decade. This imaging technology has evolved to be more user-friendly, cost-effective, and portable, demonstrating its potential for diverse clinical applications. A potential clinical application lies in the use of photoacoustic imaging as a guiding tool for photothermal therapy. This review was conducted by initially filtering through three databases, namely, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus, resulting in 460 articles published between 2019 and May 2023. Of these, 54 articles were deemed suitable for review after identification. The selected articles were research papers focusing on the development of therapeutic agents that enhance contrast in photoacoustic imaging. All reviewed articles tested these agents both in vitro and in vivo. This review focuses on wavelength absorption and radiation sources for photothermal therapy. The developed agents predominantly used NIR-I wavelengths, whereas the NIR-II region has been less explored, indicating significant potential for future research. This review provides comprehensive insights into the advancement of compounds serving as therapeutic agents and contrast agents in photoacoustic imaging-guided photothermal therapy.

Keywords: near-infrared wavelength, radiation, absorption, in vitro, in vivo

Introduction

Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid modality that combines high-contrast and spectroscopy-based optical imaging specificity with the high spatial resolution of ultrasonography [1]. Several instrument configurations in photoacoustic imaging are employed: optical resolution-photoacoustic microscopy, acoustic resolution-photoacoustic microscopy, photoacoustic tomography/computed tomography, and photoacoustic endoscopy [2]. Each configuration has different resolutions and depths and can be used as required. A review of the development and progress of photoacoustic imaging technology over the past decade revealed that this imaging technology has evolved to be more user-friendly, cost-effective, and portable, demonstrating its potential for diverse clinical applications [3]. Research involving the application of photoacoustic imaging techniques as monitoring and detection tools in the medical field has been extensive. These include monitoring blood clots during microbubble-assisted sonothrombolysis [4], studying hemodynamic changes caused by blood pressure variations [5], assessing the efficacy of the vascular disrupting agent 5,6-dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid through quantitative analysis [6], and studying deep vascularization for regenerative applications [7]. Furthermore, photoacoustic imaging holds potential as a guiding tool for various medical procedures requiring intervention, such as drug delivery, therapy, surgery, and biopsy [8].

In addition to diagnostic applications, photoacoustic research extensively focuses on the development of diagnostic and therapeutic systems (theranostics) and drug monitoring strategies [9]. Photothermal therapy (PTT) is currently under development and uses photoacoustic imaging as a guiding tool. In addition to conventional cancer therapies, PTT represents an alternative and innovative approach to cancer treatment. PTT is a therapeutic modality that uses light-absorbing agents to heat and selectively destroy cancer cells or other abnormal tissues without harming healthy cells [10]. The hybridization of photoacoustic imaging and PTT demonstrates clear advantages in monitoring and treating tumors because of its high efficiency, spatial specificity, fewer side effects, and ease of operation [11].

Photoacoustic imaging has been extensively investigated as a guide for PTT. These studies have focused on various compounds that assist in disease therapy and agents to enhance the contrast of photoacoustic imaging results. These agents assist in the more precise visualization of targets such as tumors or other diseases, especially at the cellular level. Using photoacoustic imaging, medical professionals can obtain valuable information about tumors' location, size, and characteristics. In addition to their use in diagnosis, these agents possess therapeutic properties. They can generate heat when exposed to light radiation, which can be utilized to destroy or damage cancer cells in photothermal therapy. This approach allows for more targeted and precise treatment, minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Compounds used as agents in PTT are formulated using various compound mixtures; as a result, they possess different maximum absorption wavelengths. Therefore, this review summarizes recent advancements in agents for photoacoustic imaging as guides for PTT based on their components, absorption wavelength ranges, and in vitro and in vivo PTT applications.

Furthermore, this review can serve as a reference for the development of agents that enhance image contrast in photoacoustic imaging and possess therapeutic properties for treating diseases such as cancer. Thus, these potential agents can be highly efficient and effective diagnostic and therapeutic tools. This review also provides conclusions and a brief discussion on the challenges and perspectives and the potential future directions of PTT agents that simultaneously enhance photoacoustic imaging contrast.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search was conducted to filter articles related to photoacoustic imaging-guided PTT. Articles were obtained from the Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus databases. The literature search used the keywords “photoacoustic imaging” and “photothermal therapy.” The Boolean operator “AND” and phrase searching (“ ”) were explicitly used to facilitate the search. Clinical trials, case series, case reports, and other relevant articles were considered for review. The selected articles were those published between early 2019 and May 2023. The identified review articles should have been included in the initial evaluation. The initial assessment involved identifying titles through literature searches. Articles not written in English or inaccessible in full text were excluded from the initial evaluation. A flowchart of the search and literature selection process is shown in Figure 1. The included studies were evaluated and then organized in a table based on the article title, agent and compound type, cells used in vitro or in vivo, peak absorption wavelength, photoacoustic wavelength, PTT laser wavelength, and compound temperature change when exposed to laser irradiation.

The exclusion criteria were applied after creating the table to eliminate articles. Further selection of articles was based on titles containing “photoacoustic imaging,” “guided,” and “photothermal therapy.” In addition, articles featuring compounds used as therapeutic and contrast agents were considered. Articles combining in vitro and in vivo methods were selected for inclusion in this literature review.

Results and Discussion

Initial screening across the three databases yielded 460 articles. After removing duplicates, 345 articles were included in the initial evaluation. Based on further selection using the following inclusion criteria, 95 articles were selected for further review. During the subsequent review process, 54 articles were deemed suitable for review (Figure 1). The summary of the article review is organized into Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4. Table 1 presents the optical characteristics of the agent compounds, including the agent name, type, absorption wavelength (λ_abs), wavelength used for generating photoacoustic images (λ_PA), imaging modality used, and tool used for image generation. Table 2 summarizes the distribution of agents based on their absorption wavelengths. Table 3 summarizes the thermal characteristics of the agent compounds in the in vitro methods. This includes the agent's name, cells used in vitro, therapeutic technique employed, radiation wavelength delivered (λ_Rad), radiation source power, duration of agent radiation, temperature increase, and temperature achieved during the provided radiation time, and photothermal conversion efficiency of the agent. Table 4 presents data related to the thermal characteristics of the agent compounds in the in vivo methods. It contains the agent's name, cells implanted in experimental animals, therapeutic technique used, tool for visualizing the agent's temperature in experimental animals, radiation wavelength delivered (λ_Rad), radiation source power, duration of agent radiation, temperature increase, and temperature achieved during the provided radiation time.

Optical characteristics of the agents

This review categorizes agents into organic, inorganic, hybrid organic-inorganic, organic dye, organic-inorganic dye, and dye categories. Organic or inorganic refers to compounds formed on basis of the organic or inorganic components, whereas hybrid organic-inorganic refers to mixed compounds formed from organic and inorganic components. Organic and organic-inorganic dyes are colorants derived from organic components or a mixture of organic-inorganic components. This classification is based on the information in the articles or material component of the agents used in the studies reviewed in this work.

Figure 2 indicates that the compounds used in photoacoustic imaging-guided PTT are mainly derived from a combination of organic-inorganic components, with compounds originating from organic and inorganic elements following closely. The prevalent use of organic materials stems from their potential for biocompatibility and biodegradability within biological systems compared with inorganic materials. Organic materials also exhibit high absorption in the far-red or near-infrared (NIR) region, presenting significant potential for PTT [12]. As shown in Table 1 and Figure 2, studies employing dyes as contrast and therapeutic agents are fewer than those employing other agent types.

One of the main challenges in photoacoustic imaging is the limited depth of light penetration in biological tissues, especially in the visible and NIR-I regions. Additionally, some non-contact photoacoustic imaging methods may encounter constraints related to signal travel distance, especially when imaging deep tissues. These constraints can lead to lower resolution in deep tissues than direct contact imaging methods (Ying et al., 2024). These limitations reduce the effectiveness of imaging deep tissues and organs, limiting their clinical applications. Therefore, to enhance treatment effectiveness, developing techniques capable of overcoming these barriers is necessary, such as using radiation sources with longer wavelengths or developing contrast agents with optimized optical properties for better tissue penetration.

 Figure 1 

Selection diagram and literature search.

 Figure 2 

Distribution of contrast agent types, including organic, inorganic, hybrid organic-inorganic, organic dye, organic-inorganic dye, and dye.

The wavelength spectrum regions of NIR can be divided into three channels: NIR-I (700-900 nm), NIR-IIa (1300-1400 nm), and NIR-IIb (1500-1700 nm) [13]. In this review, they were categorized into the visible region (400-700 nm), NIR-I (700-1000 nm), and NIR-II (1000-1700 nm) [14] because of the presence of agents with absorption wavelengths in the visible light region.

Table 2 summarizes the distribution of agents based on their absorption wavelengths, which is illustrated in Figure 3. In Figure 3 presents the development of agents that absorb at specific wavelengths. More agents are designed to be absorbed in the NIR-I wavelength region. However, studies using NIR-II are still fewer than those utilizing other wavelength ranges. The use of the NIR-II window (1000-1700 nm) was limited because of the absence of contrast agents with absorption capabilities in the NIR-II region [69]. They reported synthesizing photoacoustic contrast agents that could be absorbed in both the NIR-I (750 nm) and NIR-II (1064 nm) regions, directly comparing the resulting photoacoustic images. The findings indicated that the signal-to-noise ratio of the photoacoustic images generated at a wavelength of 1064 nm was higher than that at 750 nm.

 Figure 3 

Distribution of the wavelength absorbance of the agents.

Figure 4 displays the distribution of wavelength usage as a radiation source for generating photoacoustic images. In this figure, the NIR-I region is more extensively used as a radiation source. The number of agents in each absorption region in Figure 3 is mostly the same as that in each wavelength region used to generate photoacoustic images in Figure 4. This indicates that the selection of wavelengths as a source for photoacoustic imaging is adjusted according to the agents' absorption wavelengths to maximize the obtained images. Moreover, the choice of photoacoustic imaging wavelengths is also determined by the depth of the object being imaged.

PTT using in vitro methods

Table 3 summarizes the thermal characteristics of the agent compounds in the in vitro methods, including the cells used in vitro, laser irradiation, agent temperature increase, and agent photothermal conversion efficiency.

 Figure 4 

Distribution of photoacoustic imaging wavelengths.

Figure 5 shows that 4T1 and HeLa cells are more frequently used than other cell types. The 4T1 cell line is a highly tumorigenic and invasive transplantable tumor cell line [70]. Unlike many tumor models, 4T1 can spontaneously metastasize from the primary tumor in the mammary gland to several distant sites, including the lymph nodes, blood, liver, lungs, brain, and bones.

In addition to serving as contrast agents, these agents are used as cancer therapies through PTT. Therefore, these agents should reach temperatures sufficient to eliminate cancerous cells. Thermal cancer therapy is predominantly identified with temperatures ranging from 40 to 48°C sustained at the treated site for an hour or longer [71]. Moreover, temperatures above 42°C lead to cell death in various tissues [72]. Agents undergo laser irradiation for a specified duration to attain temperatures that can eradicate cancer cells. We cannot directly compare the effectiveness of the agents in temperature elevation because of varying radiation treatments (wavelengths, power, and duration). Figure 6 illustrates the rate of temperature increase calculated from the temperature change data and radiation duration applied to the agents. The highest rate of temperature increase was achieved by rGO-AuNP at 12.2 °C/min using a radiation wavelength of 1061 nm (0.25 W/cm², 300 s) [47]. The exact reason why this agent exhibits a higher rate of temperature increase than other agents is not explicitly stated. Comparatively, for agents irradiated at the same radiation wavelength (NIR-II), Mo₂C-derived polyoxometalate (POM) irradiated at 1060 nm (1 W/cm², 300 s) achieves a rate of 7.4°C/min [53], and 2H-MoS₂ irradiated at 1064 nm (1 W/cm², 480 s) achieves a rate of 1.55 °C/min [21]. Among agents irradiated in the NIR-I or visible light region, the highest rate of increase is observed in the PQs-TPA NPs agent irradiated at a wavelength of 808 nm (0.8 W/cm², 300 s) at 9.2 °C/min [40]. In the comparison of agent composition, rGO-AuNP containing Au, AuNSPHs, Au₄₄MBA₂₆-Cy₇ NCs, Au@Cu₂‑xSe NPs, J-Au-CS-QD, and Au-MUA-TMA exhibited significantly lower rates at 4°C/min, 6.7°C/min, 4°C/min, 2.83°C/min, and 2.8°C/min [18,39,45,46,60].

Figure 7 illustrates the distribution of the maximum temperature increases for the agents. Referring to the 40°C-48°C temperature range for cancer therapy [71], nearly all these agents can be applied for cancer treatment. Silica@GNS achieved the highest temperature at 80°C when irradiated with a wavelength of 808 nm (1 W/cm², 900 s) [63]. Once again, we could not find a precise reason for this agent reaching a higher temperature than others. This necessitates a review of numerous factors such as pH, density, size, and even the composition of the agents.

 Figure 5 

Distribution of cell types used in vitro.

Figure 8 shows the thermal conversion efficiency distribution based on the agent type. Photothermal conversion efficiency refers to the ability of an agent to convert light energy into heat. This graph compares conversion efficiency among various materials such as organic, inorganic, hybrid, or dyes. This data is essential for understanding how each component enhances the effectiveness of photothermal applications in cancer therapy or local heating. Figure 9 shows the distribution of thermal conversion efficiency across different absorbance wavelength regions. This graph is used to determine the optimal efficiency at specific absorbance wavelength regions for medical applications. From these figures, we cannot conclude that the agent's components and the length of the radiation laser source directly affect the increase in photothermal conversion efficiency. Improving photothermal conversion facilitates enhanced efficiency in PTT and contributes to an increase in photoacoustic signals [18]. Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between photothermal conversion efficiency and the temperature change produced by the agent. The graph does not show a linear relationship between higher conversion efficiency and temperature increase. Figure 11 depicts the relationship between photothermal conversion efficiency and the temperature the agent achieves. This graph provides insights into the potential of each agent to reach the high temperatures necessary for therapeutic applications.

 Figure 6 

Distribution of temperature increase in vitro for the agents.

 Figure 7 

Distribution of the achieved temperature increase by the agents.

 Figure 8 

Photothermal conversion efficiency of agents based on their constituent components.

This information helps evaluate and compare agents' performance under intensive use conditions. Various parameters, such as the laser intensity applied, can influence the efficiency and temperature increase. The intensity of the laser light affects the amount of energy absorbed by the photosensitizer or nanoparticles, which in turn influences the rise in temperature. Therefore, essential factors affecting photothermal performance and the methods and mechanisms of laser-induced photothermal energy must be studied [73].

 Figure 9 

Photothermal conversion efficiency of agents based on their constituent components in radiation range.

Additionally, the volume fraction, shape, size, and material type of the agent compounds influence the efficiency and temperature rise achievable by the agent [74]. The highest photothermal conversion efficiency is observed in Y16-Pr-PEG NPs, reaching 82.4%, irradiated at a wavelength of 808 nm (1 W/cm2, 300 s), resulting in a temperature increase of 25°C and achieving a temperature of 50°C [38]. In comparison, MPDA-PEG, irradiated at a wavelength of 808 nm (2 W/cm2, 300 s) [55], exhibits a lower photothermal conversion efficiency of 41%, a temperature increase of 41.5°C, and a temperature of 66.5°C.

 Figure 10 

Relationship between photothermal conversion efficiency and temperature change of the agents.

Although photothermal therapy is promising as an exact treatment method, challenges remain in improving photothermal conversion efficiency and achieving uniform heat distribution within the tumor. Uneven heat distribution can result in incomplete tumor ablation and potential damage to surrounding healthy tissues. Further research is needed to develop new materials with optimized optical and thermal characteristics to enhance the efficiency of photothermal therapy. These parameters include heating conditions (laser intensity, wavelength, radius, and heating time), nanoparticle parameters (volume fraction, shape, size, and material), and boundary conditions (cooling methods and cooling time), all of which are applied to control therapeutic outcomes (Ren et al., 2022).

 Figure 11 

Agents' maximum attained temperature and photothermal conversion efficiency.

 Figure 12 

Distribution of cells used in vivo.

PTT using in vivo methods

Table 4 summarizes the thermal characteristics of the agent compounds in the in vivo methods, including the implanted cells in experimental animals, thermal camera tools, laser irradiation, and temperature increase of the agents.

Figure 12 shows that the 4T1 cell line is more frequently used in experimental animals than other cell lines. The 4T1 tumor exhibits several characteristics that make it a suitable animal model for human breast cancer [70]. The progressive metastatic spread of 4T1 to lymph nodes and other organs is highly reminiscent of human breast cancer. The 4T1 tumor is also resistant to 6-thioguanine. This characteristic enables accurate counting of metastatic cells, even when spread at submicroscopic levels in distant organs.

Similarly, as in in vitro studies, agents are used as a therapeutic agent for cancer implanted in experimental animals. These agents are injected into the experimental animals, accumulate in the cancer cells, and are then exposed to radiation, causing a sufficient increase in temperature to eliminate cancer cells. Figure 13 illustrates the distribution of the rate of temperature increase of the agents in vivo, whereas Figure 14 displays the distribution of the achieved temperature of the agents in vivo. Fe-ZDS at 7.5°C/min recorded the highest rate, with radiation at a wavelength of 808 nm (0.82 W/cm², 360 s) [52]. Meanwhile, 1T-MoS₂ nanodots achieved the maximum temperature increase at 65.7°C using radiation at a wavelength of 808 nm (1 W/cm², 480 s). Figure 14 and Table 4 also indicate agents that can achieve a temperature range of 40°C-48°C, which is helpful for cancer therapy [71].

 Figure 13 

Distribution of the rate of temperature increase of the agents in vivo.

 Figure 14 

Distribution of temperatures achieved by the agents in vivo.

Figure 15 compares the agent's temperatures when irradiated in vitro and in vivo. This graph shows the differences in heating between the two conditions. This data is essential for understanding how the biological environment affects the agents' performance. It also helps assess whether laboratory results can be expected to be applied to practical applications in the human or animal body. A difference is observed in the agent's temperature when exposed to in vivo radiation, generally resulting in lower temperatures than when the agent is irradiated in an in vitro environment. This change may be due to the laser energy absorbed by the medium (experimental animal) before reaching the agent. However, some agents exhibit higher temperatures when tested in vivo than in vitro. For example, DPP-BT NP exhibited a temperature of 43.6°C at 100 μg/mL during in vitro testing and reached 54°C at 1 mg/mL in 200 µL in vivo [16]. Furthermore, the ISSzyme agent reached a temperature of 54.17°C when irradiated at a wavelength of 808 nm (1 W/cm², 600 s) in vitro and during in vivo irradiation at the same wavelength (808 nm) but with a power of 2 W/cm² for 600 s. Under in vivo conditions, the temperature increase was due to treatment modifications, such as changes in the agent's volume and alterations in the power of the radiation source.

Conclusion

Components used as therapeutic and contrast agents in photoacoustic imaging-guided PTT have been extensively developed, displaying variations in organic, inorganic, and hybrid organic-inorganic compounds. However, further development of dye-type agents is required. Generally, therapeutic and contrast agent development tends to exhibit absorption in the NIR-I region compared with that in the NIR-II region. Developing agents with NIR-II absorption can offer advantages, including improvement in the contrast of photoacoustic imaging. These agents were then tested for PTT in vitro and in vivo, with 4T1 cells being the most frequently used. When irradiated with specific power and duration, the agents experience a temperature increase of over 40°C, which is sufficient to eliminate cancer cells. No specific relationship was found between the photothermal conversion efficiency and the temperature increase achieved by the agents. Enhancing photothermal conversion not only facilitates improved efficiency in PTT but also elevates photoacoustic signals. Therefore, a deeper exploration of the influence of photothermal conversion efficiency from other perspectives is necessary. There is substantial potential for extensive research involving further exploration in developing agents that act as therapeutic agents and serve as contrast agents to enhance photoacoustic imaging. The development of agents in the NIR-II region holds significant potential because of limited research in this domain.

Future works need to be carried out to develop potential contrast agents that enhance image contrast in photoacoustic imaging and possess therapeutic solid properties. The development of multifunctional agents capable of simultaneously detecting, mapping, and treating diseases will be a primary focus of future research. Additionally, there is potential to improve photothermal conversion efficiency of contrast agents and achieve more uniform heat distribution. Future research should focus on developing new materials with optimized optical and thermal characteristics to enhance the efficiency of photothermal therapy. Although there has been a significant amount of promising preclinical research, broader clinical validation is still needed to ensure the safety and effectiveness of these agents in photoacoustic and photothermal therapy for human treatment.

Further clinical studies will provide a better understanding of the clinical potential of these techniques and accelerate their application in clinical practice. Additionally, challenges remain in translating photoacoustic imaging and photothermal therapy techniques from the laboratory to the clinical practice. Future research should focus on developing methods that can facilitate the integration of these techniques into everyday clinical practice, including the development of more affordable and user-friendly hardware and the creation of standardized clinical protocols. Integrating photoacoustic imaging with other imaging modalities (e.g., MRI, CT) and combining photothermal therapy with other treatment strategies (e.g., chemotherapy, immunotherapy) could provide more comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic solutions. Therefore, future research is expected to significantly contribute to developing more effective and safe photoacoustic and photothermal therapies.

 Figure 15 

Comparison of temperatures achieved by the agents in vitro and in vivo.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Indonesia Endowment Funds for Education (LPDP) and Center for Higher Education Funding (BPPT) for supporting this work.

Author contributions

Donni Kis Apriyanto: data collection, formal analysis, and writing-original draft preparation. Rini Widyaningrum: conceptualization, result validation, and review. Mitrayana: supervision and reviewing. Andreas Setiawan: supervision and reviewing.

Data availability

The evidence data generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Competing Interests

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

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Corresponding author: Rini Widyaningrum, Email: rinihapsaraac.id.

Received 2024-3-14
Accepted 2024-6-29
Published 2024-8-1

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